Addressing gender-based violence in disaster contexts: institutional, professional, and social responses to the 2021 La Palma (Spain) volcanic eruption.

This study explores the institutional, professional, and social responses to the gender-based violence that occurred in the wake of the 2021 volcanic eruption in La Palma, Spain. Using a qualitative methodology, it analyses the perspectives of 46 stakeholders-political decision-makers, technical staff, and social activists-acquired through in-depth interviews. The findings reveal that gender-based violence was initially overlooked during the crisis as emergency actions prioritised general safety and housing. The absence of gender-sensitive planning increased the vulnerability of women, particularly those already at risk. Although institutional efforts were later redirected to strengthen specialised services, the system remained strained owing to inadequate coordination, a lack of specific protocols, and insufficient professional training, reflecting a reactive, fragmented, and sector-specific approach. The study also highlights significant discrepancies between stakeholder groups, linked to their roles within the disaster management system. It underlines the urgent need for early-stage gender mainstreaming in disaster preparedness and response, including tailored protocols, continuous training of frontline personnel, and inter-institutional coordination.