Sequence-controlled ion assembly regulates Na+/K+ availability in gellan gum-based NaCl-KCl particles for enhanced saltiness and reduced KCl-associated bitterness.

Potassium chloride (KCl) is a promising NaCl substitute, but its bitterness limits its application. This study evaluated whether gellan gum (GG) could regulate K+ availability and reduce bitterness while serving as a matrix for hollow particle formation. Because GG can interact with both Na+ and K+, the effect of salt addition sequence on ion release and sensory properties was examined in composition-matched, spray-dried NaCl/KCl/GG systems. KCl/GG models were prepared, and NaCl/KCl/GG particles were produced by adding the salts simultaneously (Sim), KCl first (KNa), or NaCl first (NaK), followed by spray drying. In the preliminary KCl/GG models, GG delayed K+ release and significantly reduced bitterness. In NaCl/KCl/GG systems, salt addition sequence altered the pre-drying ionic environment and ion release. GG-containing powders formed fine, low-density hollow particles with D[3,2] values of 2.56-6.28 μm. KNa samples exhibited delayed K+ release and higher Na+ availability than NaK samples, consistent with the sensory results. At both GG concentrations, KNa samples were saltier and less bitter than the GG-free NaCl/KCl control (NK), while their saltiness was comparable to the NaCl-only control. Conversely, NaK samples showed lower saltiness and higher bitterness. When applied to roasted peanuts, GG-containing samples exhibited higher adhesion rates (32.4-70.2%) than the NK control (19.8%). KNa samples also retained the favorable saltiness-bitterness balance observed in the powder system, demonstrating that control of salt addition sequence can improve the sensory performance of GG-based reduced‑sodium seasoning particles without additional taste-masking agents.