An Updated Review of the Opportunities and Challenges in Insects as Food and Feed.

The global demand for sustainable protein sources is increasing in response to population growth, climate change and food insecurity. Edible insects are a promising alternative, offering nutritional, environmental and socio-economic advantages. Currently consumed by approximately two billion people worldwide, insects are rich in protein, essential amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins and minerals, usually making them nutritionally comparable to or potentially superior to conventional protein sources. Their farming systems require minimal land, water and feed inputs while generating substantially lower greenhouse gas emissions. Despite these advantages, several challenges hinder mainstream adoption. Consumer acceptance in Western markets remains low due to cultural neophobia, while regulatory frameworks, safety standards and welfare guidelines remain underdeveloped. Technical barriers, including variable nutritional composition, contamination risks and the great influence of rearing substrates, also limit scalability, while ethical debates on insect sentience and welfare further complicate industry development. This review provides an updated, stand-alone review to that of Doberman et al. This review highlights the current opportunities and challenges in insects as food and feed by evaluating key factors which support and hinder its wider integration.