Frontiers in bioengineering and biotechnology · 2026
Variable task difficulty with augmented sensory feedback for motor training in virtual reality.
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Shi Yu, Dewil Sophie, Marvin Zachary, Harel Noam Y, Nataraj Raviraj
Аннотация
INTRODUCTION: This study examined how motor task difficulty and augmented sensory feedback (ASF) modality influence task performance, physiological responses, and perceptual experience during virtual reality (VR)-based upper-limb motor training. Building on related brace- and VR-based ASF platforms previously examined in neurotypical and spinal cord injury cohorts, the long-term goal is to support neurorehabilitation-oriented adaptive VR training; however, the present study used neurotypical participants as an initial validation step.
METHODS: Fourteen right-handed neurotypical participants used a supportive upper-limb brace and surface electromyography (EMG) for myoelectric control of a virtual robotic arm in a two-dimensional tracking task. A 2 × 2 within-subject design crossed ASF modality (visual feedback versus visual + haptic feedback) with task difficulty (straight-line versus sinusoidal trajectory). Outcomes included normalized path length, task completion time, movement jerk, alpha- and beta-band electroencephalogram (EEG) power over motor cortex, heart rate, EMG amplitude, EMG-displacement-based virtual work, and perceptual ratings of agency, motivation, and utility. Short-term pre-to-post percentage changes were computed for each measure.
RESULTS: VHF straight-line training produced the largest reductions in normalized path length (-4.69%) and completion time (-6.12%), whereas VHF sinusoid training produced the largest reductions in movement jerk (-5.67%) and virtual work (-13.33%). ASF modality affected path length, completion time, jerk, EMG amplitude, and virtual work, whereas task difficulty modulated beta-band EEG power and the physiological index. Changes in path length were positively associated with changes in completion time and EMG amplitude.
DISCUSSION: These findings suggest that ASF modality and task difficulty can differentially shape short-term behavioral, physiological, and perceptual responses in healthy participants. The exploratory distribution of participant-specific best-case conditions motivates future studies using independent trial subsets to evaluate whether behavioral and physiological measures can support individualized VR training.
METHODS: Fourteen right-handed neurotypical participants used a supportive upper-limb brace and surface electromyography (EMG) for myoelectric control of a virtual robotic arm in a two-dimensional tracking task. A 2 × 2 within-subject design crossed ASF modality (visual feedback versus visual + haptic feedback) with task difficulty (straight-line versus sinusoidal trajectory). Outcomes included normalized path length, task completion time, movement jerk, alpha- and beta-band electroencephalogram (EEG) power over motor cortex, heart rate, EMG amplitude, EMG-displacement-based virtual work, and perceptual ratings of agency, motivation, and utility. Short-term pre-to-post percentage changes were computed for each measure.
RESULTS: VHF straight-line training produced the largest reductions in normalized path length (-4.69%) and completion time (-6.12%), whereas VHF sinusoid training produced the largest reductions in movement jerk (-5.67%) and virtual work (-13.33%). ASF modality affected path length, completion time, jerk, EMG amplitude, and virtual work, whereas task difficulty modulated beta-band EEG power and the physiological index. Changes in path length were positively associated with changes in completion time and EMG amplitude.
DISCUSSION: These findings suggest that ASF modality and task difficulty can differentially shape short-term behavioral, physiological, and perceptual responses in healthy participants. The exploratory distribution of participant-specific best-case conditions motivates future studies using independent trial subsets to evaluate whether behavioral and physiological measures can support individualized VR training.