Operationalizing cattle-environment interactions in a traditional silvopastoral system: CEII (Cattle Environment Interaction Index) and SWAI (Silvopastoral Water Accessibility Index) for assessing vegetation and topographic controls in Türkiye.

This study characterizes a traditional silvopastoral cattle production system in the Beşparmak Mountains of southwestern Türkiye and examines patterns of cattle use of heterogeneous vegetation and grazing resources, water accessibility, and producer-reported ecosystem-service benefits and environmental pressures. Field observations, semi-structured interviews with 104 cattle-producing households, and secondary data were integrated to describe herd structure, grazing-resource use, seasonal management practices, cattle use of vegetation types, and water provision. Two field-based composite indicators were developed to summarize selected dimensions of the system: the Cattle Environment Interaction Index (CEII), which represents the relative balance between producer-reported ecosystem-service benefits and environmental pressures, and the Silvopastoral Water Accessibility Index (SWAI), which integrates water-source composition and dependence on tractor-assisted water transportation. The production system was characterized by relatively small- to medium-sized cattle herds, extensive outdoor grazing, seasonal use of olive groves, limited housing, selective supplementary feeding, and reliance on multiple natural and managed water sources. Patterns of cattle use differed among vegetation types. During field visits, grazing was recorded in grasslands, maquis, phrygana, and ruderal-segetal areas; resting was recorded in forested areas; and water consumption was recorded in hygrophilous habitats. Among the producer-reported categories, fire-risk reduction and natural fertilization were the most frequently reported benefits, whereas environmental pressures were reported less frequently and were mainly associated with olive groves. CEII values revealed spatial variation in the reported benefit-pressure balance among districts, while sensitivity analysis showed stable rankings under ± 10% and ± 20% perturbations of the benefit component. SWAI further demonstrated spatial differences in water accessibility, with tractor dependency representing an important structural constraint in settlements relying on transported water. Overall, the findings indicate that traditional silvopastoral cattle production in the Beşparmak Mountains is embedded within a heterogeneous agro-silvopastoral landscape in which grazing resources, vegetation use, water provision, and local management practices are interconnected. The CEII and SWAI provide complementary comparative measures of producer-reported benefit-pressure balance and water-accessibility conditions, respectively. The observed cattle-vegetation use patterns further highlight the importance of heterogeneous grazing resources and water availability for understanding how cattle use the landscape.