Behavior and toxicity of Buckminsterfullerene (C60) in aquatic environments: A 30-year review.

Buckminsterfullerene (C60) is widely applied in various fields due to its unique physicochemical properties and has been increasingly detected in aquatic environments. This review examines the current knowledge of C60 behavior and toxicity in aquatic environments over the past 30 years. Once released into aquatic systems, C60 undergoes complex processes, including dispersion, aggregation, sedimentation, transformation, and interactions with co-pollutants. These processes influence its mobility, bioavailability, and toxicity, affecting organisms from algae to benthos. Mechanisms for these toxicities involve solvent-related effects, reactive oxygen species generation, physical contact, and carrier effects with co-pollutants. Furthermore, current evidence suggests that the ecological risks of C60 are likely underestimated, particularly in sediment-associated, food-web, and multi-pollutant exposure scenarios. This review also identifies critical knowledge gaps, including the fate of sediment-associated C60, the limited diversity of test organisms, the lack of environmental realism in exposure conditions, and challenges in maintaining C60 purity during preparation.