A holistic framework for enhancing the resilience of grassland-based farming systems to climate extremes.

Grassland-based farming systems underpin food security, rural livelihoods and ecosystem services, yet are increasingly exposed to climate extremes. Building resilience is therefore a societal priority. Existing assessments and adaptation strategies often focus on individual spatial or temporal scales, overlooking trade-offs and synergies across scales. Here we present an integrated framework for assessing and enhancing resilience in grassland systems that considers multiple functions, including fodder production, farm income and ecosystem services, across space and time. We identify pathways to resilience through natural, social and formal insurance mechanisms, providing insights for balancing risks, trade-offs and opportunities in climate adaptation.