Neuromodulation in Spinal Cord Injury: Clinical Review.

Spinal cord injury is a devastating consequence of trauma. It disrupts connections within the spinal cord resulting in a constellation of symptoms. Neuromodulation approaches have shown promising results in restoring function. The techniques differ in their neuronal targets, applications, and functional outcomes. This review compares the different neuromodulatory modalities including the noninvasive transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation and functional electrical stimulation to the surgically implanted epidural spinal cord stimulation and vagus nerve stimulation. Further research is needed on the mechanisms of action, the optimization of stimulation parameters and strategies, and the long-term effects of these different modalities.