Reproductive effects of dibutyl phthalate (DBP) toxicity in the testes of mammalian and avian species.

Dibutyl phthalate (DBP), a widely used phthalic acid esters (PAEs), is a well-studied endocrine-disrupting chemical. It is one of the most and studied endocrine disruptors associated with reproductive disorders and infertility. Despite its prevalence, its exact mechanisms of action remain poorly understood. This review provides an overview of DBP's reproductive toxicity and explores its mechanisms in mammalian and avian species. Exposure to DBP during sexual differentiation disrupts the proliferation and maturation of Sertoli and Leydig cells, potentially leading to cryptorchidism, hypospadias, a shortened anogenital distance, and abnormal penile development in mammalian species. Additionally, it can cause atrophy of the seminiferous tubules and apoptosis of spermatogenic cells in both mammalian and avian species. Its effects are multifaceted, operating at hormonal levels by altering the release of hypothalamic, pituitary, and peripheral hormones, and at intracellular level by disrupting signalling cascades, nuclear and membrane receptors, altered steroidogenic gene expression, DNA disruption, and alteration of vimentin cytoskeleton proteins. It is important to note that the severity of reproductive toxicity varies between species at identical DBP concentrations, likely due to differences in metabolism. Nonetheless, existing data consistently implicate DBP in reproductive malformations that can lead to male infertility across species. This review highlights the need for further research into low-dose effects and species-specific responses to better understand and mitigate DBP's impact on reproductive health.