Predictive biomarkers for post-thrombotic syndrome.

Post-thrombotic syndrome (PTS) is a long-term sequela of deep venous thrombosis. This review summarizes the best currently available biomarker candidates to identify high-risk progression patients. We examined indexed literature, including clinical studies and review articles, to identify biomarkers indicating the progression of deep venous thrombosis to PTS. Among the most studied biomarkers, associations between PTS and intercellular adhesion molecule 1 and IL-10 were consistently found to be associated with PTS development, whereas D-dimer, C-reactive protein, and IL-6 showed inconsistent results. Other less-studied biomarkers, including cell adhesion molecules, adipokines, thrombotic/fibrinolytic molecules, and novel imaging modalities, have been associated with PTS. Further clinical research on PTS biomarkers is warranted with standardized study designs to compare outcomes. A panel of biomarkers adjusted by age and body mass index, including inflammatory (IL-10), coagulation (D-dimer), adhesion (intercellular adhesion molecule 1), remodeling (matrix metalloproteinase-1/8), and metabolic molecules (adiponectin/leptin) in conjunction with imaging, is recommended for future studies.