Invasive Salmonella Typhimurium colonizes gallbladder and contributes to gallbladder carcinogenesis through activation of host epigenetic modulator KDM6B.

Gallbladder stones alone do not explain the risk of gallbladder cancer (GBC) as the sole etiological factor. Chronic microbial infection, particularly Salmonella, has been implicated in GB carcinogenesis, but its causative role and the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. We studied gut and gallbladder tissue microbiome through targeted metagenomics to identify pathogenic bacteria in GBC. Virulence and pathogenicity of identified Salmonella Typhimurium from GBC tissue were studied after culture by whole genome sequencing, phylogenetic analysis, mutational profiling, and pangenome analysis. Mechanistic studies for GBC carcinogenesis were carried out in a mouse model of gallstones and chronic Salmonella infection, a cellular model using GBC (NOZ) cell lines, and a xenograft tumor model. We found an increased abundance of Salmonella in the gut microbiome of patients with GBC and culturable S. Typhimurium from the gallbladder cancer tissue. Comparative genomics of S. Typhimurium isolated from the GBC tissue showed a high invasive index. S. Typhimurium isolates harbored horizontally acquired virulence functions in their accessory genome. Chronic S. Typhimurium infection caused chronic inflammation, pre-malignant changes, and tumor-promoting mechanisms in the mouse model with gallbladder stones with activation of the epigenetic modulator KDM6B both in the mouse model and human GBC. Inhibition of KDM6B reduced engrafted tumor size in SCID mice. Of the differentially regulated genes in human GBC tissue, ADAMTSL5, CX3CR1, and SPSB4 were also significantly dysregulated in NOZ cells infected with Salmonella. Chronic Salmonella infection contributes to gallbladder carcinogenesis through a host epigenetic mechanism involving KDM6B.