Sleep deprivation: a comprehensive review of multisystem impacts, underlying mechanisms, and emerging interventions.

Sleep deprivation (SD) has become a pervasive public health issue with significant ramifications for physiological and cognitive function. This review aims to provide a comprehensive synthesis of the detrimental health effects of SD, explore the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms, and evaluate current and emerging intervention strategies. We conducted a narrative review of the literature, synthesizing findings from epidemiological, clinical, and preclinical studies. The results indicate that SD profoundly disrupts the function of multiple organ systems, including the nervous, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, immune, and endocrine systems. At the mechanistic level, SD induces neuroinflammation, disrupts the intestinal barrier and gut microbiota, impairs hippocampal structure and function, and alters synaptic plasticity. Interventions span pharmacological approaches-from traditional central nervous system stimulants (e.g., caffeine, amphetamines, and modafinil) and sedative-hypnotics to novel therapies such as orexin receptor antagonists and gut microbiota modulators-and non-pharmacological strategies, including napping, physical therapies (e.g., transcranial magnetic stimulation, and light therapy), exercise, cognitive behavioral therapy, and dietary modifications. In conclusion, the evidence highlights the crucial role of adequate sleep in maintaining health. A multifaceted approach combining pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions, tailored to individual and population-specific needs, holds the greatest promise for mitigating the adverse effects of SD. Future research should focus on personalized interventions and leverage advanced technologies to elucidate the pathogenesis of SD further and develop more effective countermeasures.