3D bioprinting in regenerative medicine: From skin to organ engineering.

3D skin bioprinting is a transformative innovation in regenerative medicine, offering new possibilities for wound healing, reconstructive surgery, and disease modeling. By enabling the precise fabrication of patient-specific skin grafts, this technology addresses critical medical challenges, including severe burns, chronic ulcers, traumatic injuries, and genetic skin disorders. Advances in bioprinting techniques, bioink formulations, and vascularization strategies have enhanced graft integration and functional restoration, avoiding immune rejection risks. Beyond transplantation, 3D skin models provide a powerful platform for dermatological research, pharmacological testing, and tissue engineering, accelerating drug discovery while minimizing reliance on animal testing. Additionally, 3D bioprinting is revolutionizing cosmetic and reconstructive dermatology, enabling personalized aesthetic procedures, scar treatments, and anti-aging interventions that complement clinical applications. The future of 3D skin bioprinting lies in multi-tissue fabrication, AI-assisted biofabrication, and immunomodulatory grafts, which could revolutionize personalized medicine and regenerative healthcare. Despite ongoing challenges in clinical scalability and regulatory pathways, continued interdisciplinary research is driving the field closer to real-world medical applications. This review provides a structured timeline of advancements, compares bioprinting techniques, and offers specific examples of clinical and commercial applications. It concludes with a discussion of future directions, emphasizing sustainable bioinks, AI-assisted fabrication, and ethical frameworks.