Dihydrosanguinarine: A Review of Its Pharmacology, Structure-Activity Relationship, Toxicity, Pharmacokinetics, and Clinical Prospects.

Dihydrosanguinarine (DHSA) is a naturally occurring benzo[c]phenanthridine alkaloid primarily isolated from plants of the Papaveraceae family. DHSA exhibits broad pharmacological activities, including antitumor, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, neuroprotective, analgesic, anxiolytic, antiarrhythmic, and antimicrobial effects. Mechanistically, DHSA regulates multiple signaling pathways and molecular targets, including TMEM16A, p53, Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK, PI3K/AKT, NF-κB, PPARγ, GABAA receptors, and voltage-gated sodium channels. Compared with its biosynthetic precursor sanguinarine (SA), DHSA exhibits a comparatively favorable safety profile while retaining considerable biological activity. Pharmacokinetic studies further suggest that DHSA possesses acceptable membrane permeability, gastrointestinal absorption potential, enterohepatic circulation characteristics, and sustained systemic exposure. In addition, structure-activity relationship (SAR) and electrostatic surface potential (ESP) analyses indicate that the chemically accessible C6 position may provide opportunities for rational structural optimization. Nevertheless, the clinical translation of DHSA still faces several challenges. Therefore, this review systematically summarizes the physicochemical properties, pharmacological activities, molecular mechanisms, SAR characteristics, ESP distribution, toxicity, pharmacokinetic behavior, and clinical prospects of DHSA, aiming to provide a theoretical basis for its future drug development and translational application.