Polystyrene Microplastics Induce Nephrotoxicity via Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, Autophagy, and Ferroptosis.

Polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs), pervasive environmental pollutants, pose a significant concern for kidney health. This review synthesizes current evidence to elucidate their nephrotoxic mechanisms. PS-MPs induce renal injury primarily by triggering oxidative stress, activating inflammatory pathways (e.g., NF-κB/NLRP3), and disrupting programmed cell death processes including autophagy and ferroptosis. Protein-protein interaction analysis identifies key hub genes like TP53 and TNF within this toxic network. Importantly, toxicity is modulated by particle properties, environmental aging, and coexposures. We conclude by highlighting critical research gaps, particularly the need to define risks from long-term, low-dose exposure and to develop effective mitigation strategies.