Opioids for acute pain management in children.

Opioids are integral to multimodal analgesic regimens in children with moderate to severe acute pain. Throughout normal childhood there are marked changes in physiology, and social and psychological development that influence the perception and expression of pain, the pharmacology of opioids, and how they are used. A multidimensional pain assessment is key to guiding appropriate opioid prescribing. Most of the commonly used opioids in adults are used in children, with the increasing exception of codeine (as a result of regulatory change), and are generally well tolerated. Patient groups at increased risk of ventilatory impairment include neonates and those with obstructive sleep apnoea, severe neurodevelopmental conditions, trisomy 21, and severe epilepsy. Slow-release opioids are not recommended for general use, but may be used in select populations, for example, following scoliosis surgery, major trauma or burns. Prescribing and administration errors are a major issue in paediatrics generally; the potential consequences of opioid prescribing or administration errors are serious, particularly following hospital discharge. Opioids prescribed at discharge are frequently in excess of a child's analgesic requirements; three to five days supply appears sufficient for the majority of common paediatric operations. Discharge opioid prescriptions have been linked to long-term opioid use in adolescents with risk factors. Misuse of prescription opioids by adolescents is also concerning, with prevalence estimates ranging from 1.1% to 20%. Caregivers have a tendency to underdose opioids in their children; caregiver education may improve appropriate administration. Caregivers must also be provided with instructions on safe storage and disposal of unused opioids.