Reproduction, growth, and survival responses of Eisenia fetida and Folsomia candida to individual and combined pesticide exposures.

This study evaluated six widely used pesticides-two insecticides (acetamiprid, pirimicarb), two herbicides (glyphosate, fluroxypyr), and two fungicides (azoxystrobin, tebuconazole)-on the earthworm Eisenia fetida and the springtail Folsomia candida at field-realistic concentrations. Toxicity was assessed through reproduction, growth, and survival. Pirimicarb strongly impaired springtail growth and reproduction, while fluroxypyr and azoxystrobin reduced springtail reproduction. In earthworms, pirimicarb alone slightly decreased reproduction. Mixtures of acetamiprid, fluroxypyr, and azoxystrobin intensified toxicity in both species, while acetamiprid + tebuconazole also affected springtail growth and earthworm reproduction. In contrast, mixtures containing glyphosate mitigated toxic effects, increasing earthworm reproduction and springtail growth. Mortality in springtails was high for several treatments. These results demonstrate that pesticides pose significant risks to soil fauna and that interactions in mixtures can be synergistic or antagonistic, highlighting the need for mixture-specific risk assessments under environmentally realistic conditions.