Unraveling gender and racial/ethnic differences in the life course pathways from adverse childhood experiences to economic disadvantage in adulthood.

BACKGROUND

While the detrimental effects of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) on health, social, and behavioral outcomes are well established, less is known about their long-term association with economic well-being.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the longitudinal relationship between ACEs and economic disadvantage in adulthood, exploring heterogeneity by gender and race/ethnicity, identifying distinct associations by ACE type, and investigating underlying mechanisms.

PARTICIPANTS AND

SETTING

Data were drawn from Waves I, III, and IV of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), including 12,546 participants.

METHODS

School fixed effects models were used to account for unobserved contextual confounding. Analyses were stratified by gender and race/ethnicity, and interaction models tested statistical heterogeneity. Sobel mediation tests assessed the indirect roles of educational attainment, physical health, substance use, psychological health, and criminal justice involvement.

RESULTS

Greater ACE exposure was associated with higher levels of economic disadvantage in adulthood. Among ACE types, sexual abuse, parental incarceration, and community violence showed the strongest associations. Gender differences were statistically significant, with stronger associations observed for females than males, while no significant differences were found across racial and ethnic groups. Mediation analyses indicated that psychological distress was the most prominent pathway for females, whereas criminal justice involvement was more salient for males.

CONCLUSION

These findings underscore the lasting economic consequences of early adversity and point to gender-specific pathways linking ACEs to adult outcomes. Interventions should prioritize early identification and trauma-informed support systems in both school and community settings to reduce the long-term burden of ACEs.