Hydrocolloid mediated reconstruction and functionality of tapioca starch-yeast protein emulsion-filled gels: Toward β-carotene delivery and dysphagia-friendly foods of 3D printing.

This study developed emulsion-filled gels (EFGs) as β-carotene delivery systems for dysphagia management and elucidated the regulatory mechanisms of different composite matrices on their stability and bioaccessibility. Tapioca starch, tapioca starch-yeast protein, and tapioca starch-yeast protein-hydrocolloid (TS-YP-HC) served as continuous phases, with β-carotene emulsions as fillings. All EFGs showed good 3D printability, while TS-YP-HC achieved the highest precision due to stronger intermolecular interactions and a denser gel network. TS-YP-HC also exhibited the highest viscoelasticity and gel strength, resulting in better oil retention, lower freezable water content, and enhanced thermal stability. In vitro digestion further confirmed that TS-YP-HC provided superior β-carotene protection, with heating and digestive retention rates of 89.62% and 71.48%, respectively. Kinetic modeling indicated a non-Fickian diffusion mechanism involving both diffusion and matrix erosion. Moreover, all EFGs met IDDSI level 5 standards, confirming their suitability as dysphagia-friendly foods.