Glyceride-modulated starch-based emulsion gels with enhanced structural precision for texture-controlled 3D printed dysphagia foods.

3D printing technology offers a solution by customizing the nutritional composition and shape of food, making it suitable for patients with dysphagia. This study examines the effects of different concentrations (3.3 %, 6.7 %, 10 %, 13.3 %, 16.7 %, w/w) and esterification degrees of glycerides (monoolein, diolein and triolein) on starch gels by 3D printing, and characterizes dysphagia diets according to the International Dysphagia Diet Standardization Initiative (IDDSI) framework. Results indicate that adding emulsion to starch gel modifies the ratios of bound water, immobilized water, and free water, the emulsion also acts as a filler in the gel network, improving the mechanical properties and structural integrity of printed samples, and printing accuracy increased with emulsion concentration, peaking at 13.3 %. IDDSI tests showed that 3D-printed samples with lower concentrations of monoolein (G1) and diolein (G2) emulsions failed the spoon tilt test. However, at a 13.3 % glyceride concentration, the printed sample passed the spoon tilt and fork drop tests, and combined with the fork pressure test, it was classified as a Level 5 (minced and moist) dysphagia diet. Additionally, β-carotene loaded with 13.3 % G2 exhibited good thermal stability, making it suitable for delivering fat-soluble nutrients. This study advances the understanding of how glyceride regulates the printability and functionality of starch-based gels, providing new strategies for creating customized, nutritionally balanced 3D-printed foods for dysphagia management.