Environmental factors and biotic interactions mutually shaped the heterogeneity of deep-time diversification in predatory insect groups.

Predatory insect groups play key roles in terrestrial ecosystems and encompass a diverse array of distinct insect clades that utilize unique predatory strategies. Compared to insect herbivores and pollinators, the diversification patterns of predatory insect groups have received less attention. Here, we compile and analyze comprehensive fossil occurrence data from seven predatory insect groups, revealing heterogeneous diversification patterns both within each group and among different niche-based categories. To explore potential drivers of this heterogeneity, we examine nine abiotic and biotic factors. Our results indicate that the diversity of angiosperms and gymnosperms, as well as atmospheric CO 2 concentration, may play critical roles. Additionally, we find that pervasive negative biotic interactions have significant impacts both within and among different predatory insect groups and niche-based categories. Our study supports the view that heterogeneous diversification patterns of predatory insects are the result of a combined effect of environmental factors and biotic interactions.