Integrating Machine Learning and Microwave-Assisted Green Extraction: Total Colorimetric Response Assay-Based Optimization of Opuntia ficus-indica Seed Residues.

The valorization of agro-industrial by-products is a sustainable approach to recovering high-value bioactive compounds. In this study, Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. seed press residues were investigated as a source of phenolic and flavonoid compounds using microwave-assisted extraction (MAE). A multi-step optimization strategy was implemented, combining preliminary single-factor experiments (OVAT), response surface methodology based on a Box-Behnken design (BBD), and machine learning modeling using K-nearest neighbors coupled with the dragonfly algorithm (KNN_DA), followed by desirability-based validation. The effects of ethanol concentration (50-100%), microwave power (400-800 W), extraction time (2-4 min), and liquid-to-solid ratio (30-50 mL/g) were evaluated on Folin-Ciocalteu reducing capacity (FCRC), AlCl3 complexation response, and antioxidant activity assessed by DPPH radical scavenging and reducing power assays. Optimal conditions were identified at 50% ethanol, 800 W microwave power, 4 min extraction time, and a liquid-to-solid ratio of 47.28 mL/g. Under these conditions, FCRC reached 376.85 ± 0.23 mg GAE/100 g DW and 49.16 ± 0.33 mg QE/100 g DW for AlCl3 complexation response, with prediction errors of 2.80% and 0.82%, respectively. The optimized extracts exhibited enhanced antioxidant activity. These findings confirm MAE as a rapid and environmentally friendly technique and highlight the predictive performance of the KNN_DA model for process optimization.