Pesticides and trace elements in geophagic clay materials sourced in Cameroon and Nigeria: Potential implications on human health.

This study aimed to quantify 28 potentially toxic elements (PTEs) and 185 pesticide residues in geophagic clay samples from Nigeria and Cameroon, and to evaluate the human health risks (HHR) resulting from their ingestion. The clay samples contained notable levels of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, along with pesticide residues ranging from single compounds to mixtures of up to nine. Among these, DEET and several insecticides-such as DDT, permethrin, and HCH-were detected. Three sources were apportioned for PTEs in geopahgic soils through positive matrix factorization (PMF), including natural (33.8 %; i.e., Cr, Cu, Ni), industrial (30.8 %; i.e., Cd, Hg, Mn) and agricultural activities (35.3 %; i.e., As, Pb, Tl, Cr). The HHR based on PMF model showed that children were more prone to non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk than adults. Lead (HQ: 1.73) and Tl (HQ: 2.19) were the driving forces for non-carcinogenic health risk, while As Co, and V exhibited non-cancer risk only if specific soil samples were ingested by children. The highest contributions to cancer risk in children were due to As (9.10E-04), Ni (7.24E-04) and Cr (1.73E-03) intake. Agricultural activities were the largest source of carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks and represented the priority control source to better safeguard the health of individuals who engage in geophagy. Negligible risks were observed for pesticide residues in both adults and children. Daily ingestion of geophagic materials may lead to intake levels of toxic elements (e.g., As, Cd, Pb) exceeding recommended limits, confirming the geophagic behavior as a hidden route of human exposure to PTEs.