Piperlongumine enhances the antitumor efficacy of PD-1 inhibitors by inducing immunogenic cell death in prostate cancer cells.

BACKGROUND: In advanced prostate cancers, the immunologically "cold" tumor microenvironment inhibiting lymphocyte infiltration has been a significant barrier to the successful application of immune checkpoint inhibitor-based therapy. In other cancer types, immunogenic cell death inducers have been shown to restore sensitivity to checkpoint inhibitor-based therapy by promoting lymphocyte infiltration and activating naïve cytotoxic T lymphocytes through cross-presentation of neoantigens by dendritic cells. Here, we describe the ability of natural product and reactive oxygen species-inducer piperlongumine to induce immunogenic cell death in prostate cancer cells and synergize with PD-1 inhibitors in the treatment of mouse prostate cancer models.

METHODS: Markers of immunogenic cell death: ATP, HMGB1, and calreticulin, were monitored via ENLITEN assay, ELISA, and flow cytometry, respectively. Apoptosis was assessed through annexin V/7-AAD staining, fluorometric assay for caspase-3 activation, and determination of cleaved caspase-3 expression by Western blot. Vaccination and combination therapy experiments were performed in C57BL/6 immunocompetent mice. Leukocytes populations were analyzed through flow cytometry. T cell infiltration was assessed through immunostaining.

RESULTS: Piperlongumine promoted apoptosis of prostate cancer cells, as well as exposure and release of damage-associated molecular patterns ATP, HMGB1, and calreticulin. These processes were dependent on CHOP, a key component of the endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced apoptosis pathway. Inoculation of murine prostate cancer cells pre-treated with piperlongumine could successfully vaccinate syngeneic immunocompetent mice from re-challenge. Piperlongumine treatment of immunocompetent mice grafted with syngeneic prostate cancer cells increased intratumoral and splenic CD8 + T cell and dendritic cell infiltration. Piperlongumine synergized with anti-PD-1 monoclonal antibodies in this setting, significantly outperforming monotherapy, and resulting in complete tumor eradication in 40% of mice.

CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate low toxicity-immunogenic cell death inducers have the potential to convert an immunologically "cold" tumor microenvironment to a "hot" tumor microenvironment, permissive to immune checkpoint blockade. Clinical trials are warranted testing the combination of immunogenic cell death inducers with immune checkpoint inhibitors in the treatment of patients with advanced prostate cancers.