Teratogenic effects of alcohol on brain development.

There is convincing evidence that alcohol is teratogenic both in humans and animals and that its most devastating effects are on the developing brain. However, much information is still needed to determine the circumstances that increase the risk and severity of fetal alcohol-induced brain damage and to identify the mechanisms underlying such damage. Animal research has been used to address these issues because, for the most part, they are unapproachable experimentally in humans. In the past, the rather restricted focus of research into the teratology of alcohol has led to several theoretical biases. Recent findings conflict with these biases. Alcohol-induced damage to the developing brain encompasses a longer developmental time-frame, affects more cell populations, occurs at lower levels of exposure, produces greater numbers of permanent effects, and is modulated by more factors than was initially suggested by earlier teratological studies.