Neuromodulation of brain activation associated with addiction: A review of real-time fMRI neurofeedback studies.

Real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging neurofeedback (rtfMRI-nf) has emerged in recent years as an imaging modality used to examine volitional control over targeted brain activity. rtfMRI-nf has also been applied clinically as a way to train individuals to self-regulate areas of the brain, or circuitry, involved in various disorders. One such application of rtfMRI-nf has been in the domain of addictive behaviors, including substance use. Given the pervasiveness of substance use and the challenges of existing treatments to sustain abstinence, rtfMRI-nf has been identified as a promising treatment tool. rtfMRI-nf has also been used in basic science research in order to test the ability to modulate brain function involved in addiction. This review focuses first on providing an overview of recent rtfMRI-nf studies in substance-using populations, specifically nicotine, alcohol, and cocaine users, aimed at reducing craving-related brain activation. Next, rtfMRI-nf studies targeting reward responsivity and emotion regulation in healthy samples are reviewed in order to examine the extent to which areas of the brain involved in addiction can be self-regulated using neurofeedback. We propose that future rtfMRI-nf studies could be strengthened by improvements to study design, sample selection, and more robust strategies in the development and assessment of rtfMRI-nf as a clinical treatment. Recommendations for ways to accomplish these improvements are provided. rtfMRI-nf holds much promise as an imaging modality that can directly target key brain regions involved in addiction, however additional studies are needed in order to establish rtfMRI-nf as an effective, and practical, treatment for addiction.