Ecosystem service supply-demand coupling for multifunctional agroforestry landscape planning: A case study of Yunnan, China.

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) highlight that imbalances in ecosystem service supply and demand have become a key global challenge, particularly within multifunctional agroforestry landscapes. While an increasing number of studies focus on the role of ecosystem services in land-use planning, most research primarily concentrates on large-scale assessments, neglecting the spatial heterogeneity and socio-cultural dynamics of agroforestry landscapes. Additionally, the theoretical framework for multifunctional landscapes remains underdeveloped, especially regarding the integration of ecological, cultural, and social functions at the landscape scale. To address these issues, this study focuses on Yunnan Province, a region rich in agroforestry resources, and systematically investigates the spatial heterogeneity and coupling patterns of ecosystem service supply-demand relationships. By integrating multi-source spatial datasets, we quantified six key ES over three consecutive years-crop production, water yield, carbon sequestration, soil conservation, habitat quality, and landscape aesthetics. Service mismatches were identified based on supply-demand ratios, and ecological core areas, corridors, and pinch points were delineated using the Linkage Mapper tool, forming a spatial optimization framework for multifunctional landscapes. The results reveal significant spatial differentiation in ecosystem services across Yunnan. Ecological hotspots largely overlap with ethnic minority settlements, reflecting a strong coupling between ecological connectivity and cultural landscapes. This study reveals the spatial relationships between natural processes and socio-cultural factors in shaping agroforestry landscape patterns and proposes a spatial assessment and prioritization framework to support multifunctional agroforestry landscape planning. By innovatively coupling socio-cultural patterns with ecological supply-demand analysis, this study provides a novel spatial optimization framework and valuable insights for achieving ecosystem service balance and enhancing ecological security and cultural resilience in multifunctional landscape governance.