EEG oscillatory correlates of meditation practice: a systematic review and exploratory meta-analysis.

Meditation practice has been associated with changes in EEG oscillatory activity, although findings across studies remain heterogeneous. This systematic review and meta-analysis examined frequency-specific EEG patterns associated with meditation practice. Frequency-specific random-effects meta-analyses and multilevel nested mixed-effects meta-regression models were used to account for the non-independence of multiple effect sizes within studies. Significant positive pooled effects were observed for alpha, beta, and gamma oscillations, whereas no significant pooled effect was observed for theta oscillations. The primary multilevel meta-regression identified measurement state as a significant moderator, with larger effects observed for Meditation relative to Rest. However, a sensitivity analysis excluding Interaction category (Group × State interaction effects) effect sizes indicated that this finding was not robust and should be interpreted cautiously. In contrast, meditation type, practitioner expertise, and EEG frequency band were not significant moderators. Exploratory analyses indicated a modest positive association between practice duration and theta-band effect sizes; however, this finding should be interpreted cautiously given the uneven distribution of practice-duration data and the predominance of cross-sectional evidence. Overall, the findings suggest substantial heterogeneity in meditation-related EEG effects, highlighting the influence of methodological differences across studies and the need for cautious interpretation of apparent measurement-state effects. More standardized longitudinal and experimental studies are needed to clarify the temporal and practice-related dynamics of EEG oscillatory changes.