Counteracting choking under pressure in sport: A meta-analysis of interventions.

The current review synthesized the effects of counteractive interventions on sport-specific performance under pressure. Based on the PRISMA guidance, 21 studies were included and pooled effect estimates were generated by random-effects models (Hedges' g). The interventions primarily involved quiet eye training, pre-performance routines, mindfulness, left-hand contraction, self-talk, and rational emotive behavior therapy. Effects were tested on performance domains (motor accuracy, executional success, target deviation), as well as on task types (sport-specific open- and closed-skill contexts). Motor accuracy (g = 0.660), executional success (g = 0.444) and target deviation (g = 0.301) showed marked improvements. For closed-skill sports, the effects were larger and more consistent (g = 0.455) whilst in open-skill tasks the effects tended to be smaller and less robust after adjustment for publication bias indicating that efficacy may vary by type of task requirement. Counteractive interventions are generally effective in reducing the decline in sport-specific performance under pressure, particularly in closed-skill contexts. More empirical research with ecologically valid designs is required to provide a better understanding of how these interventions operate in ever changing competitive environments.