Genetic transformation of forage crops: comparative barriers, evidence, and emerging strategies.

Forage crops include phylogenetically and biologically distinct legumes and grasses, and their genetic transformation is constrained by different combinations of host response, DNA-delivery efficiency, regeneration competence, genotype dependence, and genome stability. This review critically compares evidence from forage legumes and forage grasses rather than treating these groups as a single transformation category. We evaluate Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, protoplast-based delivery, particle bombardment, CRISPR/Cas-enabled applications, developmental regulators (DRs), viral vectors, and nanomaterial-mediated delivery according to four practical outcomes: reproducibility across genotypes, recovery of regenerated plants, heritable transmission, and genetic stability. Direct evidence in forage crops shows that protocol performance is strongly species-, genotype-, explant-, and endpoint-dependent; efficiencies based on transient reporters or resistant callus therefore cannot be directly equated with stable, fertile events. DR-assisted regeneration has direct proof of concept in recalcitrant forage grasses, whereas stable nanomaterial-mediated transformation and virus-induced heritable editing remain unvalidated in forage crops. We conclude that current progress is best interpreted as the engineering of interacting delivery and regeneration constraints, not as a universal transition to genotype-independent transformation. Priority should be given to standardized outcome reporting, multi-genotype and inter-laboratory validation, controlled DR expression, and rigorous molecular and phenotypic assessment of regenerated plants.