Neurobiological Mechanisms of Ketamine Use, its Addiction, and Withdrawal: A Mini Review.

Ketamine, a substance used for anesthesia and known for inducing dissociation, can lead to addiction and the development of severe withdrawal symptoms. Ketamine alters brain networks before affecting somesthetic sensation. Ketamine abuse was especially prevalent in East and Southeast Asia, and its popularity has continued to expand globally in recent decades. Ketamine is gaining popularity in the public and private sectors as a cheaper off-label depression treatment. Unfortunately, ketamine may cause side effects, such as heart and blood vessel instability, respiratory depression, liver injury, hallucinations, etc. The pain-relieving and mental effects of ketamine might induce reliance; thus, it should be used cautiously. This review highlights the neurobiological processes underpinnings of ketamine's addictive potential, withdrawal, and its effects on brain networks like the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and mesolimbic pathway, which play vital roles in decision-making, memory, and reward processing. In addition, the involvement of neurotransmitter systems, specifically glutamate and dopamine, in mediating the addictive properties of ketamine and the neuroadaptive changes that occurred during withdrawal are also discussed. It also explains that low-dose ketamine can alter the secretion of stress hormone cortisol and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysregulation, possibly attributed to the current repurposing study of ketamine as a fast-acting antidepressant. Understanding these pathways is essential for developing effective ketamine addiction treatments, managing withdrawal symptoms, and possibly reversing brain changes for the betterment of human health and psychological well- being.