Ethical aspects of neuromodulation.

Invasive and noninvasive technological neuromodulation of the brain has major impact on individual and social ethical issues like autonomy and justice. It also challenges the foundations of ethics itself by dealing with the preconditions of moral judgment and behavior. Ethical issues related to personal, clinical, and scientific integrity are addressed. Eight prevailing problems are identified with regard to anticipation, desperation, psychosocial impact, and authenticity, expansion of clinical application, enhancement, criterion of treatment resistance, and framework for research. It is argued for comprehensive multidisciplinary care during the treatment and adaptation process, for multifaceted data collection, and against a strict criterion of treatment resistance.