Prevalence and correlates of disturbed dreaming in children.

Relatively little is known about nightmares and other forms of disturbed dreaming in children. This article reviews the literature on the prevalence and correlates of nightmares in children and highlights key methodological issues in the field. Results show that regardless of how they are defined and measured, nightmares affect a significant proportion of children of all ages and there is some evidence to suggest that nightmare frequency may peak around the age of 10. Gender differences in nightmare frequency, with girls reporting more nightmares than do boys, tend to appear between the ages of 10 and 15. Although nightmares are associated with a range of psychosocial difficulties (e.g., stress, behavioural problems), elevated anxiety and concomitant sleep-related disorders (e.g., sleepwalking) are among the most robust correlates of nightmares. Very few studies have examined nightmare treatment in children, but promising results have been obtained with imagery rehearsal therapy. Overall, research in the field has been hampered by inconsistent definitions for nightmares, by extensive variability in questionnaire items used to measure nightmare frequency, and by a lack of awareness of how using parents versus children as respondents may impact results. Longitudinal studies are needed to better understand how nightmares and their correlates evolve during childhood and adolescence, to delineate their clinical significance, and to develop effective and age-appropriate treatment strategies.