The alterations of sleep and frontal functions in chronic hemodialysis: Pathogenesis and therapeutic perspectives.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) and, in particular, chronic haemodialysis (HD) patients have a high risk of developing sleep disorders and executive dysfunction. Sleep disorders have a prevalence of 75 % in the haemodialysed population and several causes are behind their occurrence: sympatho-vagal imbalances, low melatonin production, vitamin D deficiency, altered cerebral haemodynamics and haemodialysis-induced vascular stress. Executive dysfunction affects about 55 % of haemodialysis patients. The causes can be ascribed to dysfunctions of the frontal lobes. HD patients show frontal brain atrophy and reduced brain activity and connectivity of several frontal and prefrontal areas. Sleep quality also has a significant impact on executive functions; inefficient and fragmented sleep reduces the efficiency of executive functions and increases the risk of dementia. Sleep deprivation also alters the connectivity and structure of several frontal areas. Thus, sleep and executive functions seem to be closely linked. Multidisciplinary care of patients with CKD and in HD appears essential to structure preventive interventions, pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments that can improve sleep quality, preserve the integrity of executive functions and improve their quality of life.