Dietary exposure of the Italian population to nickel: The national Total Diet Study.

Dietary exposure of the Italian population to nickel has been assessed in the national Total Diet Study (TDS). Occurrence data were combined with national individual consumption data to estimate mean and high level dietary exposure of population subgroups according to age and gender, both at the national level and for the four main geographical areas of Italy. The mean chronic dietary exposure of infants and toddlers, children, adolescents, adults, and the elderly were 4.00, 4.57, 2.57, 1.55, and 1.47 μg/kg bw per day, respectively. These intakes lie in the intermediate range of exposure estimates from TDS carried out in other countries. Main contributors to the total nickel exposure for children and adolescents were 'sweet products' and 'cereals and cereal products'. In adults and the elderly nearly 30% of the exposure was associated to the consumption of 'cereals and cereal products'. Mean and 95th percentile chronic dietary exposure was below the TDI in all age groups. For the risk characterisation of acute oral exposure, exposure data for consumers only in the adult population were compared with the reference point for systemic contact dermatitis. Consumption of 'cocoa', 'chocolate', 'crustaceans and molluscs', 'pulses' had remarkable potential to elicit adverse effects in nickel-sensitised individuals.