Gastrointestinal Biofilms: Endoscopic Detection, Disease Relevance, and Therapeutic Strategies.

Gastrointestinal biofilms are matrix-enclosed, highly heterogenic and spatially organized polymicrobial communities that can cover large areas in the gastrointestinal tract. Gut microbiota dysbiosis, mucus disruption, and epithelial invasion are associated with pathogenic biofilms that have been linked to gastrointestinal disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel diseases, gastric cancer, and colorectal cancer. Intestinal biofilms are highly prevalent in ulcerative colitis and irritable bowel syndrome patients, and most endoscopists will have observed such biofilms during colonoscopy, maybe without appreciating their biological and clinical importance. Gut biofilms have a protective extracellular matrix that renders them challenging to treat, and effective therapies are yet to be developed. This review covers gastrointestinal biofilm formation, growth, appearance and detection, biofilm architecture and signalling, human host defence mechanisms, disease and clinical relevance of biofilms, therapeutic approaches, and future perspectives. Critical knowledge gaps and open research questions regarding the biofilm's exact pathophysiological relevance and key hurdles in translating therapeutic advances into the clinic are discussed. Taken together, this review summarizes the status quo in gut biofilm research and provides perspectives and guidance for future research and therapeutic strategies.