Neonicotinoid-induced toxicity in Apis mellifera: a comprehensive review of behavioural, physiological, and molecular effects.

Pollination is one of the most essential economic services, and approximately 87.5% flowering plants depend on animals. Bees, particularly Apis mellifera, are the world’s most effective pollinators, responsible for insect-driven pollination. They support the pollination of various crops, including vegetables and fruits. However, widespread use of neonicotinoid insecticides (NNIs) has contributed to their decline by acting as agonists to acetylcholine receptors, causing neurotoxicity. NNIs bind to post-synaptic membranes, mimicking acetylcholine and leading to neural hyperexcitation and death. Sub-lethal NNIs concentrations disrupt olfactory learning, sucrose sensitivity, thorax temperature regulation, and cellular integrity. This mini-review examines NNIs’ toxicological effects on A. mellifera, exploring behavioural, physiological, and molecular alterations over recent decades. This comprehensive review highlights research trends and future directions. Bibliometric and systematic evidence mapping provide insights to guide future studies and support evidence-based policymaking.