Toxicological impact of micro- and nano-plastics on organisms of soil and water, plants, and humans: a comprehensive review.

Micro- and nano-plastics (MNPLs) represent emerging environmental contaminants that are ubiquitously present. These plastic particles have garnered significant attention from regulatory agencies and the scientific community, due to the increasing evidence regarding their pollution and associated hazards. This review emphasizes the escalating acknowledgment of the detrimental effects of MNPLs on soil, flora, aquatic ecosystems, and animal cells. It provides contemporary insights into the impact of MNPLs on soil organisms, plant absorption, and aquatic life, accentuating their varied origins, trophic transfer, and substantial threat to ecological equilibrium. The presence of MNPLs in soil raises pressing concerns regarding the survival and reproductive success of soil-dwelling organisms, the health of plants, and the subsequent safety of human food sources. This review explores the toxicological ramifications of MNPLs on aquatic organisms, highlighting their heightened risk due to their diminutive size, mobility, and larger surface area. As our comprehension of MNPLs-induced toxicity progresses, in vivo studies offer valuable insights into cytotoxic, genotoxic, nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, and neurotoxic effects, with implications extending to broader ecological consequences. The adverse effects on both organismal and environmental health underscore the hazards posed by MNPLs. Future research endeavours should prioritize the elucidation of mechanistic toxicity, particularly with respect to reproductive implications, to enhance our understanding of this hazardous environmental pollutant.