Ghrelin, appetite and gastric electrical stimulation.

Ghrelin is a peptide hormone produced mainly by the stomach and has widespread physiological functions including increase in appetite. The stimulation of the ghrelin system represents a potential therapeutic approach in various disorders characterized by deficient ghrelin signaling or by low appetite. This stimulation may be achieved via pharmacological targeting of the ghrelin receptor with synthetic ghrelin or ghrelin mimetics or via increased endogenous ghrelin production. Recently, it was demonstrated that gastric electrical stimulation (GES) with Enterra parameters results in increased ghrelin production in rats. Furthermore, recent data revealed putative role of ghrelin-reactive immunoglobulins in the modulation of the ghrelin signaling which can be also stimulated by GES. Here, we review the links between GES and ghrelin in existing GES experimental and clinical applications for treatment of gastroparesis, functional dyspepsia or obesity and discuss if GES can be proposed as a non-pharmacological approach to improve ghrelin secretion in several pathological conditions characterized by low appetite, such as anorexia nervosa or anorexia-cachexia syndrome.