Neuromodulation for Intractable Childhood Epilepsy.

In the past few years significant advances made in the field of neuromodulation have led to practical therapeutic strategies for children with medically refractory epilepsy. Here, we briefly discuss the various options that are currently available including vagus nerve stimulation, responsive neurostimulation, deep brain stimulation, chronic subthreshold cortical stimulation, as well as repetitive transcranial magnetic and transcranial direct current stimulation. The current indications, proposed mechanisms, method of administration, efficacy, adverse effects, and mention of clinical trials currently in enrollment or development are discussed.