Troxerutin as a bioactive flavonoid: Insights into its anticancer mechanisms and therapeutic applications.

Troxerutin (TXN), a hydroxyethylated derivative of rutin, has gained increasing attention as a bioactive flavonoid with multifaceted anticancer properties. Its pharmacological effects, particularly antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-angiogenic activities, play a crucial role in modulating cancer progression. This review summarises its therapeutic potential across multiple cancers, including breast, lung, liver, colorectal, prostate, and neurological malignancies. Mechanistically,TXN inhibits apoptosis, reduces oxidative stress, and modulates the immune system by targeting important signalling pathways, including NF-κB, MAPK, along PI3K/AKT. As per various in vivo and in vitro studies, it is demonstrated that TXN inhibits cell growth, increases apoptotic activation, changes mitochondrial membrane potential, and increases the degree of DNA damage in different types of cancer, such as TNBC cells, the A549 cell line, and hepatocellular cancer models. Moreover, TXN suppresses the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins, which leads to the overexpression of cytochrome c, caspase-9, and caspase-3. To validate its safety, pharmacokinetics, and therapeutic efficacy in people, further thorough mechanistic research and well-planned clinical trials are necessary. Overall,TXN is a promising natural substance that may be created as an adjuvant or supplemental treatment for a variety of tumours, bridging the gap between contemporary oncology and natural product research.