Tripartite Interaction Between Penicillium pinophilum-Host Plants and CMV-Y: A Model for Endophyte-Mediated Viral Biocontrol.

Plant-fungus-virus tripartite interactions represent complex ecological systems in which mutualistic endophytes can influence host physiology, yet the molecular basis of endophyte-mediated defence remains poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that the endophytic fungus Penicillium pinophilum EU0013 suppresses the yellow strain of cucumber mosaic virus (CMV-Y) in Solanum lycopersicum and Nicotiana benthamiana. CMV-Y infection induced pronounced oxidative and hormonal perturbations, which were mitigated by P. pinophilum colonisation. Endophyte-associated plants exhibited early accumulation of jasmonate intermediates, consistent with the activation of jasmonate signalling. This response promoted the degradation of jasmonate-ZIM-domain proteins and release of core JA-responsive transcription factors. Virus-induced gene silencing identified MYC2 as a key regulator required for endophyte-mediated antiviral protection, with WRKY17 contributing to defence modulation. In parallel, transcriptome analysis revealed the upregulation of a Dicer-like gene, indicating enhanced engagement of RNA silencing, a primary antiviral mechanism targeting viral RNA. This coordinated activation occurred alongside significant induction of pathogenesis-related proteins, particularly PR9, and improved control of reactive oxygen species. Salicylic acid-responsive defences showed a host-modulated pattern, with PR1 induced by CMV and PR2/PR5 preferentially enhanced in endophyte-associated plants. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that P. pinophilum enhances antiviral immunity through coordinated defence integration pathways, providing a framework for endophyte-based viral disease management.