Comparative study of the flavor profile of raw and stir-fried Ziziphi Spinosae Semen.

Ziziphi Spinosae Semen (ZSS) undergoes marked flavor changes during traditional stir-frying, but its time-dependent flavor evolution and associated neural responses remain unclear. Raw ZSS (F0) and samples stir-fried for 5-30 min (F5-F30) were evaluated using electronic nose, electronic tongue, HS-SPME-GC-MS, GC-IMS and electroencephalography (EEG). Stir-frying reduced bitterness and astringency while enhancing sweetness, umami and richness. The volatile profile shifted from aldehyde- and ketone-associated raw, fatty and oxidized notes toward alcohol-, ester-, furan- and heterocyclic-compound-associated fruity, sweet, roasted and nutty characteristics. HS-SPME-GC-MS showed the highest total internal-standard-equivalent volatile level in F30, whereas GC-IMS revealed stronger characteristic signals in F20-F25 and substantial volatile redistribution in F30. EEG responses increased with stir-frying duration and were strongest in F30, indicating greater neural salience rather than superior flavor quality. Integrated analysis tentatively identified F20-F25 as a balanced processing window for flavor development. These findings provide a multidimensional basis for optimizing the stir-frying quality of ZSS.