Wild edible plants of Bhutan: Diversity, use patterns, and motivations for consumption.

Wild edible plants (WEPs) have long supported rural livelihoods and cultural practices in Bhutan, yet their use and associated knowledge are increasingly challenged by agricultural change, modernization, and limited documentation. This study documented the diversity, use patterns, and socio-ecological drivers of WEP use across Bhutanese communities in all 20 districts using purposive and snowball sampling of knowledgeable informants. Data were analyzed for species composition, life form, plant parts used, food categories, utilization trends, and ethnobotanical indices. A total of 114 WEP species belonging to 61 families were recorded. Urticaceae had the highest family importance value, herbs constituted the dominant life form (42%), and fruits were the most frequently used plant part (36.89%). Accessibility and availability were the main factors supporting continued use, whereas perceived ecological change, resource scarcity, land-use change, and limited knowledge constrained utilization. Fruits and vegetables dominated current use patterns, but responses also indicated declining knowledge transmission across generations. These findings highlight the continuing nutritional and cultural importance of WEPs in Bhutan and support the need for conservation, sustainable harvesting, and stronger integration of indigenous knowledge into education and policy.