Pathogens without borders: a review on cross-kingdom transmission strategies and pathogenicity of plant and human pathogens.

Emerging evidence indicates that certain plant pathogens-once thought to be restricted to the plant kingdom-can opportunistically infect humans, particularly those who are immunocompromised. This paradigm-shifting recognition of cross-kingdom pathogenicity underscores complex microbial adaptability and highlights an underexplored public health concern. This review is a compilation of current knowledge on bacterial (Pantoea, Burkholderia, Agrobacterium), fungal (Fusarium, Aspergillus, Curvularia), and viral (e.g., TMV, PMMoV) plant pathogens implicated in human disease. Shared eukaryotic cellular architecture and overlapping molecular mechanisms may facilitate pathogen spillover across kingdoms. Furthermore, human pathogens for instance Salmonella and Escherichia coli have been detected in the rhizosphere and phyllosphere, raising additional concerns for food safety and agricultural practices. As globalization, climate change, and immunosuppressive health conditions intensify, the likelihood of such rare but significant infections may increase. A proactive, integrative "One Health" approach-encompassing plant, human, and environmental health-is essential to anticipate, monitor, and mitigate the potential risks posed by cross-kingdom microbial transmission.