Mineralised biopolymer scaffolds functionalised with Cissus quadrangularis extract for bone tissue engineering.

The design of polymeric scaffolds represents a cornerstone of bone tissue engineering, as they provide a vital biomimetic environment essential for the functional regeneration of native bone tissue. In this study, a chemical-crosslinker-free scaffold composed of gellan gum (GG), carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCs), and bacterial cellulose (BC) was synthesised, mineralised via accelerated soaking in 5-fold concentrated simulated body fluid to enhance osteoconductivity prior to application. The incorporation of Cissus quadrangularis extract, a traditional herbal medicine rich in minerals and potent antioxidants, was employed to introduce osteogenic cues. As a result, the deposited mineral phase acted as a reinforcing agent, improving stiffness and load resistance relative to the unmineralised scaffold. The scaffolds demonstrated high haemocompatibility, effective clotting, and controlled polyphenol release driven by diffusion and network relaxation. Biological assays confirmed biocompatibility in in vitro (endothelial and preosteoblast cells) and in ovo (chorioallantoic membrane) models, alongside enhanced proliferation and osteogenic differentiation. These findings suggest that these mineralised biopolymer scaffolds hold significant potential for bone regeneration, providing a robust foundation for future in vivo applications.